Diskussionsbeiträge der Projektgruppe Friedensforschung Konstanz, Nr. 53, 2004

7 Manipulative propaganda techniques
7.3 Two-sided messages

    Defining properties:
    1Anticipation of criticism
    2Rejection of the anticipated information

In most cases where propaganda has to cope with contradictory information, this is due to contradictions between polarized interpretations of reality or to the contradictions between interpretations and facts.

The simplest way to deal with these contradictions would be by means of a selection of information, presenting only the propaganda message and those facts which are in accordance with it, and disregarding facts which might raise doubts about its credibility.

Although such blatant measures of information control can be found throughout the history of propaganda, they are very dangerous. At least in democratic societies, the credibility of the media is based on pluralism, and, if a propaganda message is over-simplified, the audience might lose confidence. Moreover, as Lumsdaine & Janis (1953) have shown, propaganda is more effective if possible counter-arguments are already anticipated by the propaganda message. By using a two-sided propaganda presentation, the propagandist can both increase the credibility of the propaganda and refute possible counter-arguments before they are offered by the enemy. Presenting both arguments and counter-arguments thus makes propaganda less blatant and more resistant to counter-propaganda, since its arguments are already familiar.

The critical point about two-sided propaganda messages is that the counter-arguments should not be accepted by public opinion. There are several ways this can be accomplished:

First: Counter-arguments may be rejected by the use of arguments, presenting facts, etc. This is not specific to propaganda and would be expected from critical journalism as well.

Second: Even if counter-arguments cannot be refuted, they may be devaluated by the use of psychological or linguistic tricks (cf. Reimann, 1998, 2002):

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